The relationship between perceived gamified learning support, students' motivation, affective engagement, and self-efficacy: A structural equation modelling approach

Mengkorn Pum

doi:10.55056/etq.1304

Автор(и)

Mengkorn Pum National University of Management https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2740-2010

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.55056/etq.1304

Ключові слова:

gamification, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, affective engagement, self-efficacy, formative assessment, higher education

Анотація

The integration of gamification tools such as Quizizz and Kahoot! into formative assessment and learning support has attracted growing interest among educators worldwide. Research linking perceived gamified learning support to affective engagement and self-efficacy nevertheless remains scarce, and evidence on how such tools shape intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivation is limited, particularly in developing-country contexts such as Cambodia. This study examines the influence of perceived gamified learning support on students' intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivation, affective engagement, and self-efficacy. A quantitative correlational design was employed, with data collected from 73 students at a private university in Cambodia who had experienced gamified learning. Given the modest sample, the estimates were supported by bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples, and the hypothesised model was tested using structural equation modelling (SEM) with the diagonally weighted least squares estimator. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated good measurement model fit and strong construct validity. The SEM analysis revealed that perceived gamified learning support significantly influences students' intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivation, affective engagement, and self-efficacy, confirming all four study hypotheses. Grounded in self-determination theory and self-efficacy theory, the study demonstrates the role of gamification tools in supporting students' learning in the Cambodian higher education context, offering guidance for both researchers and practitioners. The findings suggest that educators should draw on gamification tools in their instructional design to foster students' learning motivation, affective engagement, and self-efficacy.

Завантажити

Дані для завантаження поки недоступні.

Abstract views: 28 / PDF (Англійська) views: 5

Посилання

Alemayehu, L. and Chen, H.L., 2023. The influence of motivation on learning engagement: the mediating role of learning self-efficacy and self-monitoring in online learning environments. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(7), pp.4605–4618. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1977962. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1977962

alsswey, A. and Malak, M.Z., 2024. Effect of using gamification of “Kahoot!” as a learning method on stress symptoms, anxiety symptoms, self-efficacy, and academic achievement among university students. Learning and Motivation, 87, p.101993. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.101993. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.101993

Amabile, T.M., 1996. Creativity in Context: Update to “The Social Psychology of Creativity”. Westview Press. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429501234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429501234

Baah, C., Govender, I. and Subramaniam, P.R., 2024. Enhancing Learning Engagement: A Study on Gamification’s Influence on Motivation and Cognitive Load. Education Sciences, 14(10), p.1115. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14101115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14101115

Bandura, A., 1982. Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), pp.122–147. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122

Bandura, A., 1997. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Bas, G., 2022. Effect of student teachers’ teaching beliefs and attitudes towards teaching on motivation to teach: mediating role of self-efficacy. Journal of Education for Teaching, 48(3), pp.348–363. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2021.2006043. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2021.2006043

Basileo, L.D., Otto, B., Lyons, M., Vannini, N. and Toth, M.D., 2024. The role of self-efficacy, motivation, and perceived support of students’ basic psychological needs in academic achievement. Frontiers in Education, 9, p.1385442. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1385442. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1385442

Behling, O. and Law, K.S., 2000. Translating Questionnaires and Other Research Instruments, Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences. SAGE Publications. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412986373. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412986373

Benben, V.Y. and Bug-os, M.A.A.C., 2022. Physics Students’ Academic Achievement and Motivation in a Gamified Formative Assessment. American Journal of Educational Research, 10(6), pp.385–390. Available from: https://doi.org/10.12691/education-10-6-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12691/education-10-6-2

Boudadi, N.A. and Gutiérrez-Colón, M., 2020. Effect of Gamification on students’ motivation and learning achievement in Second Language Acquisition within higher education: a literature review 2011-2019. The EuroCALL Review, 28(1), pp.57–69. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4995/eurocall.2020.12974. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4995/eurocall.2020.12974

Byrne, B.M., 2016. Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Multivariate Applications Series. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315757421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315757421

Capuno, J.G.C., 2023. Quizziz: A Game-based Formative Assessment Tool for Enhancing Students Self-Regulated Learning. International journal of social learning (ijsl), 3(3), pp.329–340. Available from: https://doi.org/10.47134/ijsl.v3i3.206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47134/ijsl.v3i3.206

Chavarría Oviedo, F. and Avalos Charpentier, K., 2023. Gamification in education for the formative assessment process. Ciencia Latina Revista Científica Multidisciplinar, 7(1), pp.9180–9194. Available from: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v7i1.5044. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v7i1.5044

Chinchua, S., Kantathanawat, T. and Tuntiwongwanich, S., 2022. Increasing Programming Self-Efficacy (PSE) Through a Problem-Based Gamification Digital Learning Ecosystem (DLE) Model. Journal of Higher Education Theory & Practice, 22(9), pp.131–143. Available from: https://doi.org/10.33423/jhetp.v22i9.5370. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33423/jhetp.v22i9.5370

Christopoulos, A. and Mystakidis, S., 2023. Gamification in Education. Encyclopedia, 3(4), pp.1223–1243. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia3040089. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia3040089

Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M., 1985. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior, Perspectives in Social Psychology. New York and London: Plenum Press. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7_2

DeVellis, R.F. and Thorpe, C.T., eds, 2021. Scale Development: Theory and Applications. 5th ed. SAGE Publications.

Feng, L., Shen, X., Xie, Z. and Yan, X., 2025. How gamification-based course drives online learners’ engagement: Focusing on intrinsic motivation and effect mechanism. Education and Information Technologies, 30(8), pp.10943–10977. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13242-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13242-5

Frankel, J.R., Wallen, N.E. and Hyun, H.H., 2012. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Available from: https://saochhengpheng.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/jack_fraenkel_norman_wallen_helen_hyun-how_to_design_and_evaluate_research_in_education_8th_edition_-mcgraw-hill_humanities_social_sciences_languages2011.pdf.

Gan, Z., Liu, F. and Nang, H., 2023. The Role of Self-Efficacy, Task Value, and Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations in Students’ Feedback Engagement in English Learning. Behavioral Sciences, 13(5), p.428. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13050428. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13050428

Hair Jr., J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J. and Anderson, R.E., 2018. Multivariate Data Analysis. 8th ed. New York: Cengage Learning EMEA.

Hair Jr., J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M. and Sarstedt, M., 2017. A Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Available from: https://eli.johogo.com/Class/CCU/SEM/_A%20Primer%20on%20Partial%20Least%20Squares%20Structural%20Equation%20Modeling_Hair.pdf.

Hattingh, T.S. and Dison, L., 2021. How assessment shapes learning: A perspective from engineering students. SAIEE Africa Research Journal, 112(4), pp.161–170. Available from: https://scielo.org.za/pdf/arj/v112n4/03.pdf.

Hayes, A.F., 2022. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach, Methodology in the Social Sciences Series. 3rd ed. Guilford Press.

Hellín, C.J., Calles-Esteban, F., Valledor, A., Gómez, J., Otón-Tortosa, S. and Tayebi, A., 2023. Enhancing Student Motivation and Engagement through a Gamified Learning Environment. Sustainability, 15(19), p.14119. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914119. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914119

Henseler, J., Ringle, C.M. and Sarstedt, M., 2015. A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), pp.115–135. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8

Hsiao, H.S., Chen, J.C., Chen, J.H., Chien, Y.H., Chang, C.P. and Chung, G.H., 2023. A study on the effects of using gamification with the 6E model on high school students’ computer programming self-efficacy, IoT knowledge, hands-on skills, and behavioral patterns. Educational technology research and development, 71(4), pp.1821–1849. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10216-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10216-1

Hu, L. and Bentler, P.M., 1999. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), pp.1–55. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

Huang, Y.T. and Wang, T.H., 2025. Effect of integrating gamified teaching activities on learning emotions of design students with different learning styles. Interactive Learning Environments, 33(5), pp.3614–3634. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2024.2446538. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2024.2446538

Irons, A. and Elkington, S., 2021. Enhancing Learning through Formative Assessment and Feedback. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781138610514. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781138610514

Jaramillo-Mediavilla, L., Basantes-Andrade, A., Cabezas-González, M. and Casillas-Martín, S., 2024. Impact of Gamification on Motivation and Academic Performance: A Systematic Review. Education Sciences, 14(6), p.639. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14060639. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14060639

Kapp, K.M., 2012. The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education. Wiley. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/2207270.2211316

Khaledi, A., Ghafouri, R., Anboohi, S.Z., Nasiri, M. and Ta’atizadeh, M., 2024. Comparison of gamification and role-playing education on nursing students’ cardiopulmonary resuscitation self-efficacy. BMC Medical Education, 24(1), p.231. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05230-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05230-7

Larrosa, M., Wives, L. and Rodés, V., 2023. Gamification Strategies as Formative Assessment Methods. A Systematic Review. In: S. Berrezueta, ed. Proceedings of the 18th Latin American Conference on Learning Technologies (LACLO 2023). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, pp.145–156. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7353-8_12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7353-8_12

Li, C.H., 2021. Statistical estimation of structural equation models with a mixture of continuous and categorical observed variables. Behavior Research Methods, 53(5), pp.2191–2213. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01547-z. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01547-z

Li, L., Hew, K.F. and Du, J., 2024. Gamification enhances student intrinsic motivation, perceptions of autonomy and relatedness, but minimal impact on competency: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Educational technology research and development, 72(2), pp.765–796. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10337-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10337-7

Li, M., 2025. Mapping academic motivation, self-efficacy, achievement emotions, and vocabulary learning in a game-enhanced learning environment from the lens of activity theory. Learning and Motivation, 89, p.102087. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.102087. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.102087

Li, X., Xia, Q., Chu, S.K.W. and Yang, Y., 2022. Using Gamification to Facilitate Students’ Self-Regulation in E-Learning: A Case Study on Students’ L2 English Learning. Sustainability, 14(12), p.7008. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127008

Liu, X. xian, Gong, S.Y., Zhang, H. po, Yu, Q. lei and Zhou, Z. jin, 2021. Perceived teacher support and creative self-efficacy: The mediating roles of autonomous motivation and achievement emotions in Chinese junior high school students. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 39, p.100752. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100752. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100752

Luarn, P., Chen, C.C. and Chiu, Y.P., 2023. Enhancing intrinsic learning motivation through gamification: a self-determination theory perspective. International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 40(5), pp.413–424. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-07-2022-0145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-07-2022-0145

Luarn, P., Chen, C.C. and Chiu, Y.P., 2023. The Influence of Gamification Elements in Educational Environments. International Journal of Game-Based Learning (IJGBL), 13(1), pp.1–12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGBL.323446. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGBL.323446

Maddux, J.E., 2016. Self-efficacy. In: S. Trusz and P. Babel, eds. Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Expectancies. London and New York: Routledge, pp.41–46. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315652535-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315652535-5

Meccawy, M., Alzahrani, A., Mattar, Z., Almohammadi, R., Alzahrani, S., Aljizani, G. and Meccawy, Z., 2023. Assessing EFL Students’ Performance and Self-Efficacy Using a Game-Based Learning Approach. Education Sciences, 13(12), p.1228. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13121228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13121228

Méndez-Suárez, M., 2021. Marketing Mix Modeling Using PLS-SEM, Bootstrapping the Model Coefficients. Mathematics, 9(15), p.1832. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/math9151832. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/math9151832

Mindrila, D., 2010. Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) Estimation Procedures: A Comparison of Estimation Bias with Ordinal and Multivariate Non-Normal Data. International Journal of Digital Society, 1(1), pp.60–66. Available from: https://doi.org/10.20533/ijds.2040.2570.2010.0010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20533/ijds.2040.2570.2010.0010

Mohamad, M., Arif, F.K.M. and Noor, N.M., 2020. Online Game-Based Formative Assessment: Distant Learners Post Graduate Students’ Positive Perceptions Towards Quizizz. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 9(4), pp.1437–1444. Available from: https://tinyurl.com/33ufnrd8.

Morris, R., Perry, T. and Wardle, L., 2021. Formative assessment and feedback for learning in higher education: A systematic review. Review of Education, 9(3), p.e3292. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3292

Moshagen, M. and Erdfelder, E., 2016. A New Strategy for Testing Structural Equation Models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23(1), pp.54–60. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.950896. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.950896

Nguyen, T.H., 2022. The Effects of Using Online Applications to Teach Vocabulary to English Learners of HUFI in Ho Chi Minh City. International Journal of TESOL & Education, 2(3), pp.32–42. Available from: https://doi.org/10.54855/ijte.22233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54855/ijte.22233

Nieminen, J.H., 2025. How does assessment shape student identities? An integrative review. Studies in Higher Education, 50(2), pp.287–305. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2334844. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2334844

Nusair, K. and Hua, N., 2010. Comparative assessment of structural equation modeling and multiple regression research methodologies: E-commerce context. Tourism Management, 31(3), pp.314–324. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.03.010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.03.010

Othman, S.Y., Ghallab, E., Eltaybani, S. and Mohamed, A.M., 2024. Effect of using gamification and augmented reality in mechanical ventilation unit of critical care nursing on nurse students’ knowledge, motivation, and self-efficacy: A randomized controlled trial. Nurse Education Today, 142, p.106329. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2024.106329. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2024.106329

Pintrich, P.R., Smith, D.A.F., Garcia, T. and McKeachie, W.J., 1991. A Manual for the Use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). (91-B-004). Ann Arbor, MI: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning. Available from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED338122.pdf.

Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J.Y. and Podsakoff, N.P., 2003. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), pp.879–903. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

Polo-Peña, A.I., Frías-Jamilena, D.M. and Fernández-Ruano, M.L., 2020. Influence of gamification on perceived self-efficacy: gender and age moderator effect. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 22(3), pp.453–476. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-02-2020-0020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-02-2020-0020

Preacher, K.J. and Hayes, A.F., 2008. Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), pp.879–891. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879

Prieto-Andreu, J.M., Gómez-Escalonilla-Torrijos, J.D. and Said-Hung, E., 2022. Gamification, Motivation, and Performance in Education: A Systematic Review. Revista Electrónica Educare, 26(1), p.1–23. Available from: https://doi.org/10.15359/ree.26-1.14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15359/ree.26-1.14

Pum, M., 2025. Examining the predictive role of weekly game-based online quiz performance on academic achievement and engagement. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 20(2), pp.25–38. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17160286, Available from: https://www.asianjde.com/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/825.

Pum, M., Mey, D., Van, S. and Seung, S., 2025. Gamification for Developing 21st-Century Skills in Education: A Review of Current Practices and Impacts. Interdisciplinary Educational Technology, 1(1), p.e103. Available from: https://doi.org/10.71176/interedtech/17569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.71176/interedtech/17569

Ramesh, G., Azzah, A.M., Habiba, M.S.A.M. and Pauline, S.M., 2025. Gamification and students’ engagement in accounting courses – an experimental study. Learning and teaching in higher education: Gulf perspectives, 19(1), pp.35–48. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1108/LTHE-12-2020-0063. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/LTHE-12-2020-0063

Razali, N., Nasir, N.A., Ismail, M.E., Sari, N.M. and Salleh, K.M., 2020. Gamification Elements in Quizizz Applications: Evaluating the Impact on Intrinsic and Extrinsic Student’s Motivation. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 917(1), p.012024. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/917/1/012024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/917/1/012024

Rivera, E.S. and Garden, C.L.P., 2021. Gamification for student engagement: a framework. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 45(7), pp.999–1012. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1875201. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1875201

Roemer, E., Schuberth, F. and Henseler, J., 2021. HTMT2–an improved criterion for assessing discriminant validity in structural equation modeling. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 121(12), pp.2637–2650. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-02-2021-0082. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-02-2021-0082

Ryan, R.M. and Deci, E.L., 2000. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), pp.68–78. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.68

Ryan, R.M. and Deci, E.L., 2020. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, p.101860. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860

Salas-Bustos, D.A., Coral-Padilla, S.J., Bustos-Lozano, H.L. and Almeida-Reina, M.B., 2025. The Role of Formative Assessment in Higher Education: Strategies to Improve Learning and Knowledge Retention. Pakistan Journal of Life and Social Sciences, 23, pp.5441–5455. Available from: https://doi.org/10.57239/PJLSS-2025-23.1.00425. DOI: https://doi.org/10.57239/PJLSS-2025-23.1.00425

Sappaile, B.I., Jenheri, J., Sari, A.F. and Nampira, A.A., 2025. Gamification and Student Motivation: Evaluating E-Learning Engagement from an Educational Psychology Perspective. Darussalam: Journal of Psychology and Educational, 4(1), pp.73–82. Available from: https://doi.org/10.70363/djpe.v4i1.308. DOI: https://doi.org/10.70363/djpe.v4i1.308

Schildkamp, K., van der Kleij, F.M., Heitink, M.C., Kippers, W.B. and Veldkamp, B.P., 2020. Formative assessment: A systematic review of critical teacher prerequisites for classroom practice. International Journal of Educational Research, 103, p.101602. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101602. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101602

Smirani, L. and Yamani, H., 2024. Analysing the Impact of Gamification Techniques on Enhancing Learner Engagement, Motivation, and Knowledge Retention: A Structural Equation Modelling Approach. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 22(9), pp.111–124. Available from: https://doi.org/10.34190/ejel.22.9.3563. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34190/ejel.22.9.3563

Taherdoost, H., 2016. Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument; How to Test the Validation of a Questionnaire/Survey in a Research. International Journal of Academic Research in Management (IJARM), 5(3), pp.28–36. Available from: https://tinyurl.com/yc323f4e.

Trautner, M. and Schwinger, M., 2020. Integrating the concepts self-efficacy and motivation regulation: How do self-efficacy beliefs for motivation regulation influence self-regulatory success? Learning and Individual Differences, 80, p.101890. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101890. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101890

Wolf, E.J., Harrington, K.M., Clark, S.L. and Miller, M.W., 2013. Sample Size Requirements for Structural Equation Models: An Evaluation of Power, Bias, and Solution Propriety. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 73(6), pp.913–934. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164413495237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164413495237

Xu, J., Lio, A., Dhaliwal, H., Andrei, S., Balakrishnan, S., Nagani, U. and Samadder, S., 2021. Psychological interventions of virtual gamification within academic intrinsic motivation: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 293, pp.444–465. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.06.070. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.06.070

Zainuddin, Z., Shujahat, M., Haruna, H. and Chu, S.K.W., 2020. The role of gamified e-quizzes on student learning and engagement: An interactive gamification solution for a formative assessment system. Computers & Education, 145, p.103729. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103729. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103729

Zhang, F., 2024. Effects of game-based learning on academic outcomes: A study of technology acceptance and self-regulation in college students. Heliyon, 10(16), p.e36249. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36249. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36249