Barriers to digital inclusion in Africa: a systematic review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55056/etq.996Keywords:
barriers to digital inclusion, digital exclusion, digital inclusion, digital divide, systematic reviewAbstract
This study employed a systematic review to determine the barriers to digital inclusion in Africa. A total of 522 documents published between 2012 and 2024 were analysed. The PRISMA flow guidelines explained the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the journal articles. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) was used to assess the methodological quality of each selected article. Data were analysed using thematic analysis, which allowed for the systematic identification and interpretation of recurring themes related to digital inclusion in Africa. The analysis revealed eight key barriers to digital inclusion: digital illiteracy, inadequate ICT infrastructure, high costs and limited accessibility, poor Internet connectivity, rural-urban disparities, cybercrime, computer phobia, and language and literacy barriers. The study recommends that policies to tackle digital exclusion in Africa must be holistic. In particular, investment in digital infrastructures and lower ICT service costs may alleviate issues that relate to access and connectivity; improved programmes around the building of digital skills may mitigate the impact of digital illiteracy and computer anxiety; the development of rural areas can reduce geographical inequalities; and cybersecurity policies could generate higher levels of confidence and greater security among users. Additionally, local-language digital content can be supported to circumvent linguistic and literacy barriers.
Downloads
References
Adarkwah, M.A., 2021. An Outbreak of Online Learning in the COVID-19 Outbreak in Sub-Saharan Africa: Prospects and Challenges. Global Journal of Computer Science and Technology, 21(H2), pp.1–10. Available from: https://computerresearch.org/index.php/computer/article/view/2025.
Adedokun, T.A. and Zulu, S.P., 2022. Towards digital inclusion in South Africa: The role of public libraries and the way forward. Interdisciplinary Journal of Economics and Business Law, 11(4), pp.127–154. Available from: https://openscholar.dut.ac.za/items/07be6320-c0a0-4071-91f3-9ed5f087d8d8.
Africa Analysis, 2024. Africa Broadband Outlook 2024. Available from: https://atuuat.africa/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Africa-Broadband-Outlook-2024-v1-00-DRAFT-FINAL-08.11.2024.pdf.
Africa Finance Corporation, 2024. State of Africa’s Infrastructure Report 2024. Africa Finance Corporation. Available from: https://www.africafc.org/our-impact/our-publications/state-of-africas-infrastructure-report-2024.
African Studies Group at the Autonomous University of Madrid, 2016. Education: 72% vs 90%. Available from: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2014_2019/documents/acp/dv/8-education_/8-education_en.pdf.
Agbetiloye, A., 2024. Top 10 African countries with the highest adult literacy rate. Business Insider Africa. 5 November 2024. Available from: https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/lifestyle/top-10-african-countries-with-the-highest-adult-literacy-rate/j3m1h8b.
Aker, J.C. and Mbiti, I.M., 2010. Mobile Phones and Economic Development in Africa. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(3), pp.207–232. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.24.3.207. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.24.3.207
Akpojotor, L.O., 2024. Computer Self-Efficacy, Computer Anxiety and Information Retrieval Skills as Correlate of Electronic Library Use among LIS Undergraduates in Southern Nigeria Universities. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal), p.8116. Available from: https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/libphilprac/8116/.
Alliance for Affordable Internet, 2021. The Affordability Report 2021. Web Foundation. Available from: https://adi.a4ai.org/affordability-report/report/2021/.
Arendse, E. and Van Den Berg, C., 2024. Exploring the Barriers to Digital Financial Inclusion Amongst Businesses in the Informal Sector. 2024 IST-Africa Conference (IST-Africa). pp.1–11. Available from: https://doi.org/10.23919/IST-Africa63983.2024.10569289. DOI: https://doi.org/10.23919/IST-Africa63983.2024.10569289
Auerbach, C.F. and Silverstein, L.B., 2003. Qualitative Data: An Introduction to Coding and Analysis. New York and London: New York University Press.
Babalola, S.S. and Genga, C.A., 2024. Managing Digital Transformation in African Higher Education Institutions: Challenges and Opportunities: Managing Digital Transformation. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education / Revue internationale du e-learning et la formation à distance, 39(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.55667/10.55667/ijede.2024.v39.i1.1333. DOI: https://doi.org/10.55667/10.55667/ijede.2024.v39.i1.1333
Baynit, M., Mnyanyi, C.B.F. and Msoroka, M.S., 2025. Digital Learning in the Age of Artificial Intelligence: Insights from Selected Higher Learning Institutions in Tanzania. African Quarterly Social Science Review, 2(2), pp.96–112. Available from: https://doi.org/10.51867/AQSSR.2.2.9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.51867/AQSSR.2.2.9
Bekele, T.A., 2021. COVID-19 and Prospect of Online Learning in Higher Education in Africa. Journal of comparative & international higher education, 13(5), pp.243–253. Available from: https://doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v13i5.4060. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v13i5.4060
Bolaji, H.O. and Adeoye, M.A., 2022. Accessibility, usability, and readiness towards ICT tools for monitoring educational practice in secondary schools in Ilorin Metropolis. Indonesian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2(2), pp.257–264. Available from: https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/IJOMR/article/view/48247. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17509/ijomr.v2i2.48247
Bornman, E., 2012. The Mobile Phone in Africa: Has It Become a Highway to the Information Society or Not? Contemporary Educational Technology, 3(4), pp.278–292. Available from: https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/6084. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/6084
Bradbrook, G. and Fisher, S., 2004. Digital Equality: Reviewing Digital Inclusion Activity and Mapping the Way Forwards. Swindon, UK: Citizens Online.
Butcher, N., 2003. Technological Infrastructure and Use of ICT in Education in Africa: an overview. (Working Group on Distance Education and Open Learning (WGDEOL)). Association for the Development of Education in Africa. Available from: https://www.adeanet.org/clearinghouse/sites/default/files/docs/dol_ICT_eng.pdf.
Carmody, P., 2025. ‘Digital provide’ or product consumption diffusion cycle? The diffusion impact and potential of digital technology in the Global South. Information Technology for Development, 31(2), pp.374–387. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2024.2368539. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2024.2368539
Chen, K.T.C., 2012. Elementary EFL teachers’ computer phobia and computer self-efficacy in Taiwan. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(2), pp.100–107. Available from: https://www.tojet.net/articles/v11i2/11210.pdf.
Corrigan, T., 2020. Africa’s ICT infrastructure: Its present and prospects. (Policy Briefing 197). SAIIA. Available from: https://saiia.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Policy-Briefing-197-corrigan.pdf.
Creswell, J.W., 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 3rd ed. Sage Publications. Available from: https://www.ucg.ac.me/skladiste/blog_609332/objava_105202/fajlovi/Creswell.pdf.
Daffé, G. and Diallo, F.L., 2020. Gender Disparities in Access to and Use of ICT in Senegal. In: M. Konte and N. Tirivayi, eds. Women and Sustainable Human Development: Empowering Women in Africa. Cham: Springer International Publishing, Gender, Development and Social Change, pp.165–179. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14935-2_10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14935-2_10
Dasuki, S. and Effah, J., 2022. Mobile phone use for social inclusion: the case of internally displaced people in Nigeria. Information Technology for Development, 28(3), pp.532–557. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2021.1976714. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2021.1976714
Deen-Swarray, M., 2016. Toward Digital Inclusion: Understanding the Literacy Effect on Adoption and Use of Mobile Phones and the Internet in Africa. Information Technologies & International Development, 12(2), pp.29–45. Available from: https://itidjournal.org/index.php/itid/article/view/1504.html.
Dolan, J., 2018. Digital Inclusion and a Trusted Internet: The Role of the International Development Community in Balancing Internet Access and Cybersecurity. Center for Digital Acceleration. Available from: https://www.dai.com/cda-cybersecurity.pdf.
Ebrahim, A.Q. and van den Berg, C.L., 2024. The barriers to technology adoption among businesses in the informal economy in Cape Town. South African Journal of Information Management, 26(1), p.a1872. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4102/sajim.v26i1.1872. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/SAJIM.v26i1.1872
Faloye, S.T., Ranjeeth, S. and Ako-Nai, S., 2022. Understanding Age Differences in Technophobia: A South African Case Study. South African Computer Journal, 34(1), pp.35–60. Available from: https://doi.org/10.18489/sacj.v34i1.1039. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18489/sacj.v34i1.1039
Fu, X., Ghauri, P. and Lu, J., 2025. Digital technology and inclusive development during global crisis: Evidence from a randomised experiment in Bangladesh. Research Policy, 54(3), p.105173. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2025.105173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2025.105173
GSMA Intelligence, 2023. The State of Mobile Internet Connectivity 2023: Sub-Saharan Africa key trends. GSMA. Available from: https://www.gsma.com/somic/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/State-of-Mobile-Internet-Connectivity-2023-Sub-Saharan-Africa.pdf.
GSMA Intelligence, 2024. The Mobile Economy: Sub-Saharan Africa 2024. GSMA. Available from: https://event-assets.gsma.com/pdf/GSMA_ME_SSA_2024_Web.pdf.
Gupta, V., Sharma, S., Nimkar, S. and Gangrade, J., 2024. An Empirical Study of Technophobia among Adults. Journal of propulsion technology, 45(2), pp.1872–1887. Available from: https://www.propulsiontechjournal.com/index.php/journal/article/view/6172.
Haddaway, N.R., Collins, A.M., Coughlin, D. and Kirk, S., 2015. The Role of Google Scholar in Evidence Reviews and Its Applicability to Grey Literature Searching. PLOS ONE, 10(9), p.e0138237. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138237
Hawkins, B.L. and Oblinger, D.G., 2006. The Myth about the Digital Divide. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(4), pp.12–13. Available from: https://er.educause.edu/articles/2006/7/the-myth-about-the-digital-divide.
Heeks, R., 2022. Digital inequality beyond the digital divide: conceptualizing adverse digital incorporation in the global South. Information Technology for Development, 28(4), pp.688–704. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2022.2068492. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2022.2068492
Huang, R., Liu, D., Kanwar, A.S., Zhan, T., Yang, J., Zhuang, R., Liu, M., Li, Z. and Adarkwah, M.A., 2024. Global Understanding of Smart Education in the Context of Digital Transformation. Open Praxis, 16(4), pp.663–676. Available from: https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.16.4.761. DOI: https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.16.4.761
Ifijeh, G., Iwu-James, J. and Adebayo, O., 2016. Digital Inclusion and Sustainable Development in Nigeria: The Role of Libraries. 3rd International Conference on African Development Issues (CU-ICADI 2016). Covenant University Press, pp.52–57. Available from: https://eprints.gouni.edu.ng/3969/.
Internet Society, 2022. Perspectives on LEO Satellites: Using Low Earth Orbit Satellites for Internet Access. Internet Society. Available from: https://www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2022/perspectives-on-leo-satellites/.
Internet World Stats, 2020. Internet penetration in Africa 2020 - Q1 - March. Internet World Stats. Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20240520081733/https://www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm.
Ireland, T.D., 2023. ILD UNESCO 2023 ‘Promoting literacy for a world in transition: Building the foundation for sustainable and peaceful societies’. Available from: https://redclade.org/wp-content/uploads/03092024-Articulo-Alfabetizacion.pdf.
Jeet, S., 2024. Exploring affordable digital literacy programs in Africa. NewsBytes. 7 November 2024. Available from: https://www.newsbytesapp.com/news/lifestyle/affordable-digital-literacy-programs-in-africa/story.
Jolly, J.E., 2020. Indexing and Indexing Parameters of Journals – A Paramount to Article Publishing. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3598848. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3598848
Kanini, J., 2024. Digital safety & security in Africa. (Report). American Friends Service Committee. Available from: https://afsc.org/sites/default/files/2024-06/africa-report-reformatted.pdf.
Kiwonde, F.M., 2024. The Use of ICT In Tanzanian Secondary Schools: Experienced Obstacles in the Teaching and Learning Processes. Journal of Issues and Practices in Education, 16(1), pp.59–75. Available from: https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jipe/article/view/277425.
Koushik, A.K., 2017. Indexing and Impact Factor: Judging the Quality of a Journal. Journal of Health & Medical Informatics, 8(4), pp.1–2. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7420.1000285. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7420.1000285
Krönke, M., 2020. Africa’s digital divide and the promise of e-learning. (Afrobarometer Policy Paper 66). Afrobarometer. Available from: https://afrobarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/pp66-africas_digital_divide_and_the_promise_of_e-learning-afrobarometer_policy_paper-14june20.pdf.
Kweka, K.H. and Ndibalema, P., 2018. Constraints Hindering Adoption of ICT in Government Secondary Schools in Tanzania: The Case of Hanang District. International Journal of Educational Technology and Learning, 4(2), pp.46–57. Available from: https://doi.org/10.20448/2003.42.46.57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20448/2003.42.46.57
Livingston, E., Houston, E., Carradine, J., Fallon, B., Akmeemana, C., Nizam, M. and McNab, A., 2023. Global student perspectives on digital inclusion in education during COVID-19. Global Studies of Childhood, 13(4), pp.341–357. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/20436106221102617. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20436106221102617
Lyons, D., 2021. How Many People Speak English, And Where Is It Spoken? Babbel. 10 March 2021. Available from: https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/how-many-people-speak-english-and-where-is-it-spoken.
MacFarlane, A., Russell-Rose, T. and Shokraneh, F., 2022. Search strategy formulation for systematic reviews: Issues, challenges and opportunities. Intelligent Systems with Applications, 15, p.200091. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswa.2022.200091. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswa.2022.200091
Magesa, M.M. and Jonathan, J., 2022. Conceptualizing digital leadership characteristics for successful digital transformation: the case of Tanzania. Information Technology for Development, 28(4), pp.777–796. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2021.1991872. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2021.1991872
Marais, E., 2023. The Development of Digital Competencies in Pre-Service Teachers. Research in Social Sciences and Technology, 8(3), pp.134–154. Available from: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.28
Mathevula, M.D. and Uwizeyimana, D.E., 2014. The Challenges Facing the Integration of ICT in Teaching and Learning Activities in South African Rural Secondary Schools. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(20), pp.1087–1097. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n20p1087. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n20p1087
Mayer, R., Figueredo, K., Jensen, M., Kelly, T., Green, R. and Barra, A.F., 2008. Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic: Costing the Needs for Investment in ICT Infrastructure in Africa. (Summary of Background Paper 3). World Bank. Available from: https://www.eu-africa-infrastructure-tf.net/attachments/library/aicd-background-paper-3-ict-invst-summary-en.pdf.
Msoroka, M.S., 2018. Prison Education in Tanzania: An Exploration of Policy and Practice. Ph.D. thesis. The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. Available from: https://hdl.handle.net/10289/12130.
Muñoz Moreno, R., Fernández Borrero, M., Ferri Fuentevilla, E., Relinque Medina, F., Morilla Luchena, A. and Vázquez Aguado, O., 2023. Technologies and social services. An overview of technology uses by users of social services. PLOS ONE, 18(5), p.e0284966. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284966. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284966
Ndibalema, P., 2025. Digital literacy gaps in promoting 21st century skills among students in higher education institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Cogent Education, 12(1), p.2452085. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2452085. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2452085
Ndibalema, P.M., 2024. The growth of cyberbullying among youth in higher learning institutions: a bibliometric analysis. Educational Dimension, 10, p.143–166. Available from: https://doi.org/10.55056/ed.700. DOI: https://doi.org/10.55056/ed.700
Njoki, M. and Wabwoba, F., 2015. The Role of ICT in Social Inclusion: A Review of Literature. International Journal of Science and Research, 4(12), pp.380–387. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286293531. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21275/v4i12.NOV151897
Nsengimana, J.P., 2022. Satellite Connectivity: The Key to Africa’s Digital Transformation? Access Partnership. Available from: https://accesspartnership.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Satellite-Connectivity-Whitepaper-final.pdf.
Nwokeocha, S., 2021. Impact of Covid-19 on Teaching and Learning in Africa Assessed by the Education Unions. Journal of Education and Learning, 10(4), pp.15–26. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v10n4p15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v10n4p15
O’Connor, C. and Joffe, H., 2020. Intercoder Reliability in Qualitative Research: Debates and Practical Guidelines. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19, p.1609406919899220. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919899220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919899220
Ogbo-Gebhardt, E., 2025. The Impact of Digital Inclusion Initiatives: A Systematic Review. Proceedings of the 58th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. Hawaii, pp.6743–6752. Available from: https://doi.org/10.24251/HICSS.2025.804. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24251/HICSS.2025.804
Okello, F., 2023. Bridging Kenya’s Digital Divide: Context, Barriers and Strategies. (Digital Policy Hub — Working Paper). Waterloo, ON, Canada: The Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI). Available from: https://www.cigionline.org/static/documents/DPH-Paper-Okello.pdf.
Okello, M.K., George, A.N. and Mbotela, K., 2020. An Investigation into Availability of ICT Infrastructure and Adequacy of ICT Technical Personnel for Implementation of Digital Literacy Programme in Public Primary Schools in Waitaluk Division, Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya. Journal of Research Innovation and Implications in Education, 4(1), pp.51–60. Available from: https://jriiejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/JRIIE-4-1-006.pdf.
Okocha, D.O. and Dogo, J.S., 2023. Digital Inclusion in Rural Areas: Qualitative Exploration of Challenges Faced by People from Isolated Communities in Southern Kaduna. ASRIC Journal on Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(2), pp.86–98. Available from: https://asric.africa/sites/default/files/2025-06/SSH%202023_Vol.%204%20Issue%202_7.pdf.
Okonkwo, S.N., 2025. Digital Inclusion in Africa: Bridging the Divide. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5151540. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5151540
Olanrewaju, G.S., Adebayo, S.B., Omotosho, A.Y. and Olajide, C.F., 2021. Left behind? The effects of digital gaps on e-learning in rural secondary schools and remote communities across Nigeria during the COVID19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2, p.100092. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100092. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100092
Oloyede, A.A., Faruk, N., Noma, N., Tebepah, E. and Nwaulune, A.K., 2023. Measuring the impact of the digital economy in developing countries: A systematic review and meta- analysis. Heliyon, 9(7), p.e17654. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17654. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17654
Page, M.J., McKenzie, J.E., Bossuyt, P.M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T.C., Mulrow, C.D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J.M., Akl, E.A., Brennan, S.E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J.M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M.M., Li, T., Loder, E.W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., McGuinness, L.A., Stewart, L.A., Thomas, J., Tricco, A.C., Welch, V.A., Whiting, P. and Moher, D., 2021. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, p.n71. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
Pariona, A., 2017. The Least Literate States Of Africa. WorldAtlas. Available from: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-least-literate-states-of-africa.html.
Parsons, C. and Hick, S.F., 2008. Moving from the Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion. Currents: Scholarship in the Human Services, 7(2). Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20231122185654/https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/currents/article/download/15892/12589/51935.
Persaud, A., 2001. The Knowledge Gap. Foreign Affairs, 80(2), pp.107–117. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/20050068. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20050068
Prosper Africa, 2022. Near-Universal Connectivity in Africa. Prosper Africa. Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20241203234906/https://www.prosperafrica.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Near-Universal-Connectivity-in-Africa.pdf.
Ragnedda, M. and Mutsvairo, B., 2018. Introduction: Digital Inclusion: Empowering People through Information and Communication Technologies. In: M. Ragnedda and B. Mutsvairo, eds. Digital Inclusion: An International Comparative Analysis. Lanham: Lexington Books, p.vii–xx. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5040/9781978742321.0003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9781978742321.0003
Reddick, C.G., Abdelsalam, H.M.E. and Elkadi, H.A., 2012. Channel choice and the digital divide in e-government: the case of Egypt. Information Technology for Development, 18(3), pp.226–246. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2011.643206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2011.643206
Schlebusch, C.L., 2018. Computer Anxiety, Computer Self-efficacy and Attitudes towards the Internet of First Year Students at a South African University of Technology. Africa Education Review, 15(3), pp.72–90. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2017.1341291. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2017.1341291
Seuyong, F.T., Silwal, A.R., Begazo Gomez, T.P., Newhouse, D. and N’Ghauran, A., 2023. The Size and Distribution of Digital Connectivity Gaps in Sub-Saharan Africa (English). (Prosperity Insight Series). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. Available from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099241003142325200.
Sivakumaran, T. and Lux, A.C., 2011. Overcoming Computer Anxiety: A Three-Step Process for Adult Learners. US-China Education Review, B(1), pp.155–161. Available from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED524800.pdf.
Sun, M., Liu, J. and Lu, J., 2023. Digital Literacy in Africa: Exploring its Relationship with Infrastructure, Policy, and Social Inequality. African Journalism Studies, 44(3), pp.204–225. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2024.2329705. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2024.2329705
Theckedath, D., 2020. The State of Broadband Internet in Canada. Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20200513145255/https://hillnotes.ca/2020/05/13/the-state-of-broadband-internet-in-canada-2/.
Thelwall, M., 2018. Dimensions: A competitor to Scopus and the Web of Science? Journal of Informetrics, 12(2), pp.430–435. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2018.03.006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2018.03.006
Thomas, D.R., 2006. A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), pp.237–246. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748
UN.ESCAP, 2011. A guidebook on public-private partnership in infrastructure. United Nations.
UNESCO, 2023. Bridging the digital divides. Available from: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/bridging-digital-divides.
Van Raemdonck, N., 2021. Digital Dialogue: Africa as a Cyber Player. (Digital Dialogues). EU Cyber Direct. Available from: https://eucd.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/eucd/assets/FgLaEKYp/digital-dialogue-africa-final.pdf.
Vitus, E.N., 2023. Cybercrime and Online Safety: Addressing the challenges and solutions related to cybercrime, online fraud, and ensuring a safe digital environment for all users — A Case of African States. Available from: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.24155610.v1.
W3Techs, 2026. Usage Statistics and Market Share of Content Languages for Websites. W3Techs. Available from: https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language.
Warschauer, M., 2003. Technology and Social Inclusion: Rethinking the Digital Divide. MIT Press. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6699.001.0001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6699.001.0001
Wilhelm, A.G., 2004. Digital Nation: Toward an Inclusive Information Society. MIT Press. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/2428.001.0001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/2428.001.0001
Xholo, N., Ncanywa, T., Garidzirai, R. and Asaleye, A.J., 2025. Promoting Economic Development Through Digitalisation: Impacts on Human Development, Economic Complexity, and Gross National Income. Administrative Sciences, 15(2), p.50. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15020050. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15020050
Yunus, K., Wahid, W., Omar, S.N.M.S. and Rashid, R.A., 2016. Computer Phobia among Adult University Students. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 5(6), pp.209–213. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.6p.209. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.6p.209
Downloads
Submitted
Published
Data Availability Statement
The reviewed articles are listed in Appendix B.
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Mohamed Msoroka
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Accepted 2026-03-24
Published 2026-06-20
